Web-based instruction: To what extent are techniques generaliseable?


Alan Anderson, School of Social Sciences, Southern Cross University, Lismore, 2480. Email: aanders1@scu.edu.au
Allan Ellis, School of Social Sciences, Southern Cross University, Lismore, 2480. Email: aellis@scu.edu.au

Abstract

Some of the most challenging subjects to teach via the Web are those which call for the student to develop particular motor skills for operating specialised equipment or instruments. Surgery is one example; music is another. On closer inspection, many skill sets are common to seemingly diverse activities and professions.
Recent advances in desktop video technologies have made it easier to demonstrate manual skills via the Web, however there is more to the process than simple show-and-tell by a video window on a Web page or downloadable file.
This paper examines how techniques for using desktop video technology to enhance music teaching can be applied to teaching other subjects over the Web. Various human movement skills are compared and shown to be applicable across different fields, as are the techniques that teachers can use to teach these skills via the Web. The paper concludes that through the sharing of transferable knowledge between developers of different disciplines, it should be possible to establish a framework of useful, generic guidelines for using desktop video technologies to enhance Web-based instruction.

Introduction

The earliest educational use of the Web was to teach facts and to describe parts and procedures. The pedagogical techniques used to facilitate that kind of Web-based teaching and learning are well documented for a range of disciplines (Kearney & Treagust, 2001). Concepts such as compassion, cultural prejudice or environmental awareness can be more difficult to teach via the Web and usually call for innovative approaches such as creating scenarios or simulations, which challenge students to work through ethical, moral and emotional issues. Some of the most challenging subjects to teach via the Web, however, are those which call for the student to develop particular motor skills for operating specialised equipment or instruments. These subjects present significant practical as well as pedagogical challenges.
Gratton (2000) who on the one hand asserts that practically everything that can be taught by more conventional means could be taught via the Web, concedes this is with the possible exception of some practical activities and motor skills. Gratton acknowledges that direct feedback from observers can be essential to the development and practice of such skills. Watch making, microsurgery or playing a musical instrument are good examples of subjects that by their practical nature present such challenges in respect to Web-based delivery [HREF 1].
In spite of how diverse some activities can appear to be, many involve similar movement skill sets. The term ‘skills set’ is used in this paper to describe a set of movement skills as categorised in Table 1.

  1. Manual dexterity - Coordinating movements of the hand, arm and hand or both hands
  1. Motor coordination - Coordination movement of two or more limbs together
  1. Stamina - Exerting one’s self physically over long periods of time
  1. Strength - Exerting force repeatedly
  1. Rapid response - Moving quickly and correctly between two different activities
Table 1. Movement skills inventory (adapted from the Nebraska Career Information System Handbook, 2002)
At first glance, once might question the relevance of categories 3 and 4, strength and stamina in relation to Web-based instruction. In fact, their relevance relates to the importance of demonstrating energy efficient movement. This will be explained later as particular movement skills and technical skills are discussed with reference to different occupations and the transferability of Web-based instruction techniques.

Emphasis on appropriate Web-based instruction

Authors of Web-based learning literature have called for the development of appropriate pedagogy for the Web-based learning environment. Torrisi-Steele (2002), for instance, cautions against the use of technology for technology’s sake. Burnett and Ellis’ (2002) review of themes in past AusWeb papers reported, “a shift away from building operational Web sites to a concern for pedagogical principles that takes into account the technological character of the Web”. Their conclusion is consistent with that of Kearney and Treagust (2001) who note that many writers (e.g. Jonassen, 1994; Duffy & Cunningham, 1996; Harper & Hedberg, 1997) have voiced their concerns about the instructional design of early developments in educational software. In particular, these authors have argued against emphasis on drill and practice routines and tutorial programs that were designed primarily for reinforcement of concepts (Kearney & Treagust, 2001). They have also sought to encourage a shift in emphasis towards “constructivist software” which they claim is best suited to “engaging learners collaboratively in open ended, exploratory learning environments where [they] can construct meaningful knowledge” (Kearney & Treagust, 2001, p.1).

To this end, many teachers and instructional designers have endeavored to exploit the latest Web-based technologies, to build greater interactivity into Web-based courses. As alluded to by Kearney and Treagust (2001), this has been shown to increase the viewer’s engagement with the subject matter (Newton & Ledgerwood, 2001). However, making effective use of these technologies for educational purposes is not quite as simple as some of the media hype surrounding the Internet implies (Torrisi-Steele, 2002). In fact, effective implementation of Web-based training in any subject area calls for the consideration of economic issues, practical issues, pedagogical issues and technical support issues (Lowe, 2002; Smissen & Sims, 2002; Ellis & Phelps, 2000). The increasing body of research literature on Web-based instruction can help developers of Web-based teaching and learning resources to make informed decisions in relation to many of these issues. However, compared to the substantial amount of information on how to teach text-based subjects via the Web, there is a scarcity of research-based literature on using desktop video technologies to teach manual skills via the Web. This paper helps to address this void through its examination of how desktop video technology can be used to enhance Web-based teaching and learning of various practical skills-oriented subjects.

Using desktop video technologies to teach manual skills via the Web mages

As reported in Anderson and Ellis (2001a), recent advances in desktop video (DTV) technologies have given rise to a range of application possibilities in various fields of education and training. Not surprisingly, a number of authors have arrived at the conclusion that fields in which manual skills are usually passed on by physical demonstration probably stand to gain the most (Kearney & Treagust, 2001). Attempts to capture such movement in still images, as found in conventional method books, are often of limited success. Whereas, digital video (DV) can capture such action in full motion and in a format that can be replayed, edited where necessary and delivered via the Web using a desktop computer.

Apple (2003) note two choices for delivering DV via the Web: 1) Fast Start (http/FTP delivery) or 2) streaming (RTP/RTSP delivery) [HREF 2]. As shown in tables 2 and 3, there are pros and cons associated with either choice.
Fast Start pros
Fast Start cons
No special server software needed
Cannot broadcast or multicast
Movie gets through no matter how slow the connection
Cannot transmit live feeds
With fast connection, movie plays as it downloads—it looks like streaming to the audience
Cannot skip ahead, therefore, the audience must download the entire movie
Delivers all types of Quick Time media, including sprites and Quick Time VR
Puts a copy of the movie on the local hard disk--you lose control
Lost packets are retransmitted until they are received
No problems with firewalls or NAT
Table 2. Fast Start pros and cons (adapted from apple.com/quicktime/tools, HREF 2).

Streaming pros
Streaming cons
Only way to transmit live feeds
Requires a streaming server and/or broadcaster
Broadcasts and multicasts (one stream to man viewers)
Movie breaks up if data rate exceeds connection speed
Random access within prerecorded movies
Lost packets are gone for good; movie always loses some data (though some data is almost always lost over the Internet – over a LAN, there is normally no data loss).
Uses no space on the viewer’s hard disk
Some QuickTime media types, such as Quick Time VR, Flash and sprites, don’t stream
Never uses more bandwidth than it needs
Can be stopped by firewalls or NAT
Doesn’t leave a copy of the movie on the viewer’s hard disk
Can stream individual tracks into a movie from any streaming server anywhere
Table 3. Streaming pros and cons (adapted from apple.com/quicktime/tools, HREF2).

From a pedagogical point of view, there are some obvious advantages for students and teachers using instructional video:

Video segments present core information, and model proper technique. Slower students can review the segments as necessary, while students with high level skills can work at their own pace. This means instructors can spend more time coaching students who need additional help (Hobart Institute of Welding Technology, 2002).

One of the best features of DV files compared to the long established VHS video format is that the user can slow down the action, replay, fast-forward and copy without loss of audio or visual quality. In keeping with Kearney & Treagust’s (2001) constructivist approach to computer-mediated teaching and learning, this puts the power to navigate and manipulate the learning resource into the hands of the student. Used this way, DV files can provide a useful point of reference to facilitate learning between opportunities for instruction in person.
To further enhance the audio-visual dimensions of instructional Web sites, other media such as audio files, animations, rotating graphics and text can be integrated into Web site presentations. These technologies lie beyond the direct focus of this paper, with its emphasis on ways to show real human movement via the Web. Nonetheless, it is worth noting that Synchronised Multimedia Integration Language (SMIL) now makes it possible to coordinate and synchronise the display of such diverse media in conjunction with DV for viewing via a multi-media capable browser [HREF 3]. Moreover, a SMIL presentation with seamlessly synchronised DV and audio tracks can be played without having to wait long for the file to get enough data to start playing [HREF 4]. This feature alone can help to hold the attention of viewers, though, it follows that that creating highly diverse media displays featuring sophisticated animations and the like is preparation intensive compared to producing instructional DV files for delivery via the Web. Clearly, developers of training resources for the Web need to consider what combination of Web-based technologies best suits their purpose, clientele and available resources. With respect to showing real people demonstrating and explaining manual skills, for instance, DTV technologies may prove to be the obvious choice when pedagogical, practical and economic factors are taken into account.


QuickTime ™ Virtual Reality (QTVR)


Another advance in DV technology which further enhances interactivity in Web-based instruction is QuickTime ™ Virtual Reality (QTVR). 360 degree panorama vision and zoom features, give the viewer a better opportunity to pick and choose which angle they care to view the action from [HREF 5]. This could be useful for providing apprentice mechanics, for instance, with an optimum view a qualified mechanic showing how to repair a car engine. Normally, only one or two people at a time could get such a view of the action because there are limits to the room available underneath or above the engine bay of a vehicle. Similarly, steel fabrication workshops could use this technology for showing workers how safety inspections and maintenance procedures should be carried out on heavy machinery which is too heavy or dangerous to lift and rotate for optimal viewing from every angle. The panorama and zoom features could be useful for Army trainers who want to give soldiers a preview of targets on a firing range they have yet to see. It should be noted, however, that although QTVR files can be viewed via a Web browser, there would need to be considerable time and money invested in preparing such resources. As is the case with technology such as flight simulators and the like, cost currently keeps QTVR out of common use.


Editing DV for Streaming via the Web



Desktop video editing technology is now in common use. Applications such as iMovie ™ (bundled with Macintosh computers) have made video editing less expensive and less complicated, making it more accessible to the every day computer user. iMovie™ and professional desktop video editing applications such as Adobe Premier ™ and Final Cut Pro™ make it possible to integrate a wide range of multimedia (text, scanned images, audio files etc.) from different applications into movies which can be exported to create QuickTime ™ DV files, compressed and ready for distribution via the Web [HREF 6]. Searchable data base technology gives teachers the ability to maintain their own data bases of FAV’s (Frequently Asked for Videos) as well as Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ’s). This means that video files containing various views of essential techniques being demonstrated can be uploaded by the teacher and downloaded by students as required. Any difficulties or questions in relation to a particular technique could be put to the teacher either by email, synchronous chat, or, given sufficient bandwidth, during a lesson or meeting by desktop videoconference. In a sporting context, golfers, for instance, having previously recorded their swing at its best, could use the Web to access a large data base of DV files of their swing technique as a point of reference. Using a portable laptop computer for convenience while on tour, professional golfers could access a data base of hundreds or even thousands of DV files showing variations of their technique or views of particular fairways, greens and entire golf courses as required. The more portable that technology like multimedia-capable (i.e. video) wireless phones becomes, the more practical this scenario becomes [HREF 7].


Desktop Videoconferencing

As broadband technology becomes increasingly available to the public, there will be greater opportunity to blend synchronous and asynchronous approaches to teaching and learning over the Web. Desktop Video Conferencing (DTVC) technologies could be used as a means to provide additional support for learners who are otherwise completely reliant on asynchronous delivery via the Web. Meanwhile, in situations where a student needs continual feedback while performing a physical task such as surgery, welding or craftwork, DTVC allows the instructor at a remote location to provide immediate guidance, correctional advice and encouragement as required. Because the instructor and student can see as well as hear each other, the opportunity for clearer communication is enhanced.


Teaching music via the Web

The findings summarised and related to other activities under the next two headings of this paper are based on primary research data obtained with the help of a group of professional and semi-professional musicians, music teachers and students. Over twenty of these volunteers participated in a range of activities that were designed to explore the practicalities and pedagogical issues of using desktop video technologies to enhance the teaching of musical instruments. The main activities included:


These activities were conducted between January 2001 and March 2003. Venues included the School of Contemporary Music and the School of Social Sciences, Southern Cross University, Lismore, Australia, and private and community music teaching studios in the local Lismore area.

In accord with the typically cyclic: ‘plan; act; reflect; plan; act; reflect’ processes of Action Research (Dick, 2001), the study involved constant, comparative analysis of interview data, observation notes, and relevant themes from music education; multimedia and information technology literature. Also in keeping with the action research approach, participants were encouraged to take an active role in decision making about the development and refinement of techniques for using desktop video technologies as well as the research procedures being used to testing these techniques.


Summary of selected findings related to music teaching using DTVC and downloadable DV files


  1. Converting movies to slow motion proved useful for showing subtle human and mechanical movements which can not be demonstrated at a speed which the human eye can detect. The ability to pause, forward and rewind these videos without image distortion can help teachers and students to analyse their technique and make adjustments if necessary to improve evenness, endurance and ultimately sound production.

  1. Split screen effects can be useful for showing two performers playing a duet or the coordination between the different limbs of one player

  1. Although the length and file size of Web-based movies are best kept to a minimum for computer users without broadband connection to the Internet, larger files are sometimes necessary to show the full sequence or cycle of motion involved in a particular manual technique. A double stroke roll on a snare drum, for instance, must be demonstrated from very slow to fast and back to slow again in order to show the critical transition between wrist and rebound technique.

  1. Although modern DV cameras can auto focus and compensate for different lighting conditions, adhering to basic guidelines of photography (such as to avoid having the subject in a shadow) helps to produce clear images showing sufficient detail to enhance learning.

  1. Techniques such as: a) using a tripod to keep the video camera stable, and b) eliminating unnecessary background movement (e.g. a busy patterned curtain blowing in the wind) can help to minimise unnecessary data processing for computers. This can assist in maintaining optimum video resolution and fluidity during a DTVC.

  1. A fixed black background helps to highlight the movement of white drum sticks or mallets. Besides improving contrast between the subject and background, this helps to minimise unnecessary data processing for computers during DTVC and so helps to maintain video fluidity and resolution.

  1. A small DV camera inserted into the body of an acoustic guitar proved useful for inspecting the inside and inner workings of the instrument. This helped students to learn how the instrument was constructed and how the parts flex and vibrate as it is played.

  1. Teachers acknowledged that videoconferencing could be useful for building rapport, asking for impromptu demonstrations and gaining immediate feedback on performance or the execution of a particular technique.

  1. Non-verbal communication cues and gestures such as smiling and waving appear to be as important in teaching music by DTVC as they are in a more conventional music teaching studio or classroom environment. As reported in Anderson and Ellis (2001b), a smile from the teacher can help to reassure students as they struggle to play a challenging piece of music over desktop videoconference. This has implications for the positioning of cameras to allow occasional headshots during DTVC or the pre-recording of instructional videos for streaming via the Web.

  1. Different instruments call for different positioning and re-positioning of computer hardware and cameras to show various instrumental performance techniques from various angles.

  1. Some teachers find it distracting to stop and adjust equipment while teaching by DTVC. Mounting cameras on boom stands with swivel joints, which allow for quick and convenient repositioning with one hand, helped to remedy this problem. The same can be done with flat screen monitors.

  1. Using a second video camera to record the setting up and packing away of portable DTVC terminals as well as DTVC sessions in progress helps one to later observe, reflect, and refine procedures. This can help to save time and energy when it comes to repeating these procedures.

Transferability of movement skill set instructional techniques


How can the knowledge and techniques learnt from research into teaching musical instruments over the Web be applied to other disciplines? The following table gives some examples of how movement skills used in one field may be relatable to those used in other seemingly unrelated activities. In addition, the table shows the transferability of techniques for using desktop video technologies to enhance Web-based instruction in those activities. The numbers appearing in the fourth column (in bold type) relate to corresponding music findings shown under the previous heading.
Movement skill
Music activity
How DTVC or DV can facilitate learning
Comparable skills & activities
Finger dexterity - Coordinating movements of fingers
Movements of fingers to lever drum sticks and control stick rebound.

Slow motion DV makes it possible to see the transition between wrist and rebound technique. Helps student to learn a technique which is too fast to see with the human eye & cannot be demonstrated properly at reduced speed because sticks will not rebound in the same manner at lower velocity.
Golf: Slow motion DV can show (with minimal distortion of the image) how a golf club shaft bends naturally as the club head must follow the hands on the down swing.
Shaft will not bend in same manner if demonstrated at low speed.
1 & 3
Manual dexterity Coordinating movements of the hand, arm and hand or both hands
Raising arms and hands to equal height ready to strike drums or piano keys at the same velocity and produce even sound.
Slow motion DV and ability to pause without distortion used to check that stick heights remain even during high speed performance. Adjustments can be made as required.
Gymnasts need to maintain even arm and hand positioning to execute various techniques safely as well as for aesthetic reasons. DV allows one to check positions are maintained at speed. 1 & 3
Motor coordination - Coordination movement of two or more limbs together
Playing a drum kit involves coordination of all limbs together. Feet operate bass drum and hi hat cymbal pedals while hands control sticks.
Split screen effects, inserts and transitions created at the editing stage can help the viewer to see (and hear the effects of) different controls being operated simultaneously.
Four-way coordination is comparable to driving a car or machinery such as used in earth moving where levers as well as pedals and a steering wheel are used to control the vehicle. 2
Stamina - Exerting one’s self physically over long periods of time
Endurance to keep guitar picks, drum sticks, cello or violin bows etc. moving properly for long periods at fast tempos.
DV editing allows the editor to choose the best video clip of a particular technique being demonstrated. The student can replay the DV file as many times as required without the instructor tiring physically or mentally from having to repeat the technique.
Applies to almost any activity involving continuous repetition for long periods. Ability of DV files to support learning of correct technique helps to preserve energy and avoid muscle fatigue and potential for repetitive strain injuries. 1, 4 & 10
Strength - Exerting force repeatedly
Hands and fingers pressing heavy guage electric bass strings on to a fretboard without buckling or losing optimum positioning under the strain when forced to play the same notes repeatedly for extended periods.
DV editing allows the editor to choose the best of several takes and make slow motion and normal speed movie files. The student can then replay the movie as many times as s/he requires, whereas instructor would tire physically & mentally after continually repeating the same technique.
Archery pulling the string of the bow back and putting load on the fingers, hands, wrists and arms in particular.
Demonstrating woodchopping technique.
Swinging axe or heavy tool many times in succession to demonstrate a technique is tiring for the instructor. 1, 12
Rapid response - Moving quickly and correctly between two different activities
Quick changes in body position are essential, as the body must follow the arms and hands shifting to playing different rhythms on different drums, cymbals and sundry percussion instruments.
Slow motion, fast forward, rewind and pause capabilities enable the student to see the finer, fluid movements involved in each transition in movement. For instance, the timing involved as eyes, feet and hands begin to turn and lead towards the next target of the performer’s attention.
Slow motion and pause without distortion of image makes it possible to see the finer movements of the transition between lying down paddling a surf board to jumping up on to the feet to ride the wave. Like the golf swing, it is difficult to accurately demonstrate this technique slowly. 1, 12
Table 4. Transferability of movement skill set instructional techniques

Transferability of technical skill set instructional techniques

Table 5 gives some examples of how technical skills used in one activity may be relatable to those used in other seemingly unrelated activities. In addition, the table shows the transferability of techniques for using desktop video technologies to enhance Web-based instruction in those activities.

Technical skills
Music related technical skills
How DTVC or DV can facilitate learning
Comparable skills & activities
Installing –
setting up equipment, machines or structures to meet specifications
Setting up cameras, microphones, instruments & DTVC calls for precision and creativity to gain optimum positioning.
DV files of people demonstrating set-up procedures could be uploaded to a streaming server. People learning could access them via the Web.
Shop fitters and storage specialists could do the same to show and teach techniques used to install shelving, in stores or warehouses.
1, 3, 6 & 12
Inspecting –
Checking and evaluating equipment, structures and products
Inspecting large, stadium size concert PA systems and stage construction. Inspecting the lay out and taping down of audio leads and the setting up of lighting trusses.







Inspecting the inside of an instrument with an inspection mirror on a shaft (as used by dentists).
Used to show a skilled operator pointing out parts of equipment which need checking each time the equipment is set up.


The portability of Internet-ready laptop computers makes it feasible for technical support/road crews to compile DV data bases of how they have dealt with the peculiarities of various stage plans at different venues. New members of the crew could see how previous crews have dealt with the challenges.

Small DV Cams can be inserted into the body of instruments such as acoustic guitars or violins to inspect the condition of the instrument. The captured image can then be magnified to gain a closer look.
Situations such as theatres, workshops or building sites where equipment and leads carrying high voltage electricity are set up on a temporary basis


The portability of Internet-ready laptop computers makes it feasible for building construction workers to compile DV databases of how they have dealt with the peculiarities of various sites. New members of the construction crew could see how previous crews have dealt with the challenges.

Plumbers, builders, electricians and so on could do the same to look into tight spaces like pipes or wall cavities. In some cases, it would be necessary to also insert a small light on a stem to light the subject. 1, 5, 6 & 7
Repairing –
Fixing, servicing, aligning, setting up, and adjusting machines, devices, moving parts, and equipment
Fixing very old and rare musical instruments. Traditional skills for fixing very old and rare instruments could be lost as master instrument makers and repairers die before passing on their knowledge and skills.
DV does not degenerate in quality through wear and tear in the same way that magnetic tape formats do. Therefore, it would be better to create a database of DV files showing traditional instrument repair techniques.
Antique furniture restoration. Restoration of works of art. Ancient stone masonry techniques. Archeological dig techniques. Web delivery can help to make such knowledge accessible to the widely dispersed minority of people with an interest in keeping these skills. . 1, 5, 6 & 7
Trouble-shooting:
Determining the cause and solution of an error
Determining why an instrument is not sounding as it should even when it is perfectly in tune.
A small DV camera can be inserted into the body of an acoustic instrument such as a guitar, cello, piano or drum to inspect for damage.
Inspecting breaches in pressure vessels. Live streaming video via Web would allow people to get a second opinion from colleagues at remote locations as can view via their browser. 1, 5, 6 & 7
Table 5. Transferability of technical skill set instructional techniques

Conclusions: technology bridges across teaching in different disciplines


Movement skills learned in one field can be transferable to others and so too are many of the techniques which teachers use to facilitate learning of those skills via the Web. This paper has shown how instructional techniques applied to teaching music via the Web can be applicable to skill set teaching in other disciplines. From a practical point of view, recent advances in desktop video technologies have made it easier to demonstrate manual skills via the Web. However, determining the best ways to leverage what this technology has to offer calls for collaboration between developers of different disciplines. Through such collaboration, it should be possible to establish a framework of useful, generic guidelines for using desktop video technologies to enhance Web-based instruction.

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Hypertext References

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http://www.hoise.com/vmw/00/articles/vmw/LV-VM-09-00-21.html (verified, 3/3/03)
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HREF 3
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HREF 4http://hotwired.lycos.com/webmonkey/004/41/index4a.html?tw~authoring (verified, 3/3/03)
HREF 5
http://www.apple.com/quicktime/products/gallery/times_square.html (verified, 19/2/03)
HREF 6
http://www.apple.com/quicktime (verified, 19/2/03)

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Copyright

Alan Anderson & Allan Ellis, © 2003. The authors assign to Southern Cross University and other educational and non-profit institutions a non-exclusive licence to use this document for personal use and in courses of instruction provided that the article is used in full and this copyright statement is reproduced. The authors also grant a non-exclusive licence to Southern Cross University to publish this document in full on the World Wide Web and on CD-ROM and in printed form with the conference papers and for the document to be published on mirrors on the World Wide Web.