Jason Stella, Bowater School of Management & Marketing [HREF1],
Faculty of Business and Law, Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood,
VIC, 3125.
email: jste@deakin.edu.au
Stewart Adam [HREF2], Associate Professor in Electronic
Marketing, Bowater School of Management & Marketing, Faculty of Business and
Law, Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood, VIC, 3125.
email: stewart.adam@deakin.edu.au
This study examines the role of one type of rhetorical figure, tropes, which are creative devices that entail the arrangement of words in paradoxical relationships. Specifically, its focus lies in investigating whether the influence simple and complex tropes have on persuasion, as reported in previous research by Toncar and Munch (2003), are generalisable beyond the sample they used. In the extant literature, it is argued that by fully understanding the effects of certain types of tropes, advertisers may better apply their persuasive messages. The study finds that, when using subjective measures as initiated by Toncar and Munch (2003), tropes have no influence on persuasion. While it is noted that further research is needed to increase the generalisability of this study, this result holds true when both simple and complex trope types are used.
Generally, a print advertisement is composed of complimentary image(s) and copy. Though opinions differ as to the form this copy should take, it is generally contended that there are a variety of techniques advertisers can apply to get a message across (Starch, 1923; Wells, et al., 1992; Caples, 1974). A popular technique for message communication is to apply a ‘rhetorical figure/device’ to the copy. As an artful deviation (Corbett, 1971), a rhetorical figure occurs when expression deviates from expectations (McQuarrie & Mick, 1996). The goals of advertising give support for the use of rhetorical figures. Research has suggested that these devices are more likely to lead to greater attention (Berlyne, 1971), persuasiveness, and memorability (McGuire 2000; McQuarrie & Mick, 1996; McQuarrie and Mick 1999).
Within this organisation of rhetorical figures lies the use of ‘tropes’. Tropes involve the transfer of a meaning of a word that is a deviation from what it would normally signify (Corbett, 1971). They are used in advertising to convey information in a non-standard way, where they imply rather than state the claims intended conclusion. In the extant literature, it is argued that by fully understanding the effects of certain types of tropes, in terms of how each type may influence thoughts, advertisers may better apply their persuasive messages (McQuarrie & Mick, 1996). Tropes can be classified as either ‘simple’ or ‘complex’. Simple tropes have a confined conclusion, requiring the reader to slightly alter the expression so the intended content can be fully understood. Complex tropes have a less confined conclusion, requiring the reader to make deep inferences to interpret the claims meaning. Table 1 provides definitions and examples of the different types of simple and complex tropes.
Although the influences of tropes on such advertising effects as persuasion and memory have been studied (McQuarrie & Mick, 1996), little research has been undertaken on the influence the different types of tropes (simple and complex) have on advertising effects. A study by Toncar and Munch (2003) compared simple and complex tropes to investigate how these structures might influence consumer behaviour. They found that simple tropes have no apparent influence on persuasion, whereas complex tropes are more persuasive. The present study attempts to extend their study, in a different cultural context, thereby overcoming the limitations of their US-based study. It is contended that the study extends knowledge on the influence of tropes in advertising.
The findings of this study extend the results of previous studies, insofar as
they have both academic and industry importance. In terms of the study’s
importance to industry, it is reiterated that advertisers need to employ
advertising language cautiously in order to accomplish desired advertising
objectives. When an advertisement’s objective is to persuade, one type of trope
may be more appropriate than another. In effect, the different influences need
to be researched in order to ensure that the most appropriate language is used.
In terms of academic importance, this study provides further insights into the
results of previous research.
Table 1. Tropes of substitution and destabilisation
| Type of Trope | Definition | Example | |
|
|
Metonym | Use of a portion, or any associated element, to represent the whole | "The imports are getting nervous" (Buick automobile) |
|
|
Ellipsis | A gap or omission that has to be completed | “Everyday vehicles that aren't" (Suzuki) |
| Substitution (Simple Tropes) | Hyperbole | Exaggerated or extreme claim | “Experience colour so rich you can feel it" (Cover Girl Lipstick) |
| Epanorthosis | Making an assertion so as to call it into question | "Chances are, you'll buy a Ranger for its value, economy and quality. Yeah, right." (Ford pickup truck) | |
| Rhetorical Question | Asking a question so as to make an assertion | "Don't you have something better to do?" (Hewlett-Packard plain paper fax) | |
|
|
Antanaclasis | Repeating a word in two different senses | "Today's Slims at a very slim price" (Misty ultralight cigarettes) |
|
|
Resonance | A phrase is given a different meaning by its juxtaposition with a picture | "Will bite when cornered" (with a picture of a car splashing up water as it makes a turn) (Goodyear tires) |
|
|
Irony | A statement that means the opposite of what is said | "Just another wholesome family sitcom" (with a picture of the male lead licking cream off thighs) (HBO cable TV) |
| Destabilisation (Complex Tropes) | Syllepsis | A verb takes on a different sense as clauses it modifies uphold | "Built to handle the years as well as the groceries" (Frigidaire refrigerator) |
|
|
Homonym | One word can be taken in two senses | "Make fun of the road" (Ford automobile) |
| Metaphor | Substitution based on underlying resemblance | "Say hello to your child's new bodyguards" (Johnson & Johnson Bandaids) | |
| Paradox | A self-contradictory, false or impossible statement | “This picture was taken by someone who didn’t bring a camera.” (Kodak film) |
After McQuarrie & Mick, 1996
The antecedent literature suggests that the successful decoding of tropes should be intrinsically rewarding, delivering a sense of accomplishment, or pleasure of the text (Berlyne, 1971; Eco, 1979; McQuarrie & Mick, 1992; McQuarrie & Mick, 1999). When tropes are used to yield a pleasurable response, then they should also impact on mood, where an induced positive mood should facilitate persuasion (McGuire 2000; Petty, Schumann, Richman & Strathman 1993; Krugman 1983; Laird 1974). Ultimately, viewers’ attitudes ought to be influenced as a consequence of these stimulated effective responses. Fishbein’s theory on attitude formation and change suggests that beliefs cause attitudes, where attitude is determined by a set of salient beliefs (or most important beliefs), and thus, changes in attitudes must be mediated by changes in those beliefs (Fishbein & Aizen, 1975). Consistent with Toncar and Munch (2003), and when applying Fishbein’s theory on attitude formation and change, then changes in attitudes must be mediated by changes in beliefs and importance evaluations of viewers.
The literature generally argues that tropes can be used to influence argument strength (McGuire 2000; McQuarrie & Mick, 1996; McQuarrie and Mick 1999). There are contentions in the literature suggesting that tropes can draw attention to the message argument and enhance persuasion (McGuire 2000; McQuarrie and Mick 1999), where simple tropes will be advantageous over complex tropes. There are also contentions in the literature which suggest that tropes can also be a distraction (Petty, Wells & Brock, 1976; McGuire, 2000). Here, complex tropes should be advantageous over simple tropes, where they create a greater distraction through the larger degree of deviance. From this, they might be expected to interfere with counterarguing and increase persuasive impact. Toncar and Munch (2003) support these contentions, where their study illustrates that complex tropes inhibit viewers from processing ad information, leading to less claim challenging, and subsequently enhanced persuasion.
The immediate aim of the analysis we report is to test aspects of the antecedent study as expressed in the following hypotheses:
H1: Simple trope claims are more believable than explicit claims.
H2: Simple trope claims are perceived as more important than explicit
claims.
H3: Complex trope claims are more believable than explicit claims.
H4: Complex trope claims are perceived as more important than
explicit claims.
H5: Ads with complex tropes produce less counterarguing than the same
ads with simple tropes.
One hundred and twenty-three subjects were required to read an advertisement for a compact disk player. Subjects were divided into three groups, with each group viewing different advertisements with claims presented as either simple tropes, complex tropes, or explicit claims. Although these advertisements were drawn from Toncar and Munch’s (2003) study, a pre-test was conducted to determine if these claims had equivalence in the meanings as described by subjects. This pre-test, involving focus groups, formed a part of the first stage of the research project. Once the meanings were identified as being the same, the experiment, or Stage Two of the research project, could then begin. After viewing the advertisements online, subjects were asked to complete a self-administered online questionnaire designed to measure the believability and importance evaluation of claims, and the level of counterarguing. It should be noted that, since the purpose of this study was to extend Toncar and Munch’s (2003) study, the methods and instruments used were similar to those they employed.
The advertisement used as the experimental stimulus was a replica of one of the ads used in the Toncar and Munch (2003) study [see HREF3, HREF4 and HREF5]. The ad contained a graphic of a portable CD-player with no brand name, accompanied by a single product claim. Twelve versions of the ad were used, as there were four ads with claims structured as simple tropes; four with claims structured as complex tropes; and four structured as explicit versions of the claims. This differed from the ad Toncar and Munch (2003) used, as their ad contained four product claims, within the same claim structure, on the one ad. Arguably, an ad structured in this way, with more than one product claim per ad, would not be what one would expect to see in a print ad. Consequently, in this study, one single product claim was placed on each ad.
By restructuring the ads to look like what one would expect to see in a print ad, this study attempted to overcome the limitations of the Toncar and Munch (2003) study in this regard.
Pre-test: Rationalisation of advertisement claim structure
Because this study was conducted in a different cultural context, the validity of this study’s experiment relied on the assumption that the explicit claims, simple tropes, and complex tropes had similar meanings for the subjects who viewed them. In order to determine the equivalence of meaning, a pre-test needed to be conducted, where focus group were used to carry out this task.
The sample for this pre-test consisted of university undergraduate students. Participation was voluntary and did not affect students’ marks or assessment for the unit. To conduct the test, two focus groups of eight students were invited to participate in a moderated group discussion. To begin the focus group task, all subjects were shown all three versions, and all four sets of the product claims developed by Toncar & Munch (2003) (See Table 2). Subjects were only shown the claims used in the ads, and not the actual print ads, as the full ad may have distracted the participants, and thus, influenced their responses. After viewing the product claims, they were asked to express the perceived meaning of each type of claim. In particular, they were asked whether each trope and claim had the same meaning, if there were any differences, and if there were differences, how they differed. The focus groups were lead by the principal researcher.
The researcher examined and categorised the focus group responses. It was thereby ensured that the groups of claims to be used in the ads had similar meanings.
Table 2. Claims used in the experiment
|
Claim sets |
Explicit Claim |
Simple Trope |
Trope Type |
Complex Trope |
Trope Type |
|
claim set 1 |
With extended playing time, you can listen to your CDs longer on the new Discman | Chances are you’ll call it a day before the new Discman does. |
Ellipsis |
Now playtime can last a little bit longer. |
Homonym |
|
claim set 2 |
With new steady sound technology, you get a wider range of protection against those annoying skips | Don’t you think skipping should be for kids, not for CD players? |
Rhetorical Question |
The New Discman…for when you don’t think skipping is fun anymore. |
Homonym |
|
claim set 3 |
The FM transmitter in the new Discman allows you to get rid of those old tape adapters and use the radio to play your CDs | How would you like to go wireless with your CD player? |
Rhetorical Question |
Are you still using a cassette player to play your CD’s? |
Paradox |
|
claim set 4 |
The new Discman may cost more, but the long term value is worth it. | Some CD players cost less than this Discman…that’s because they should. |
Ellipsis |
Although other CD players may cost less, the new Discman is a value you’ll value. |
Antanaclasis |
Source: Toncar and Munch, 2003 p. 14.
Sampling
Given the limited time, budget, and resources, it was decided to utilise a convenience sample of University undergraduate students in the present study. This was consistent with the convenience sample of University undergraduate students Toncar and Munch (2003) used. One university undergraduate Marketing unit (subject) was adopted as the sampling frame for this research. As a subject taught completely online, it had a count of 460 local and international students. Despite the large number of students in the unit, difficulty was encountered, as many participants were unwilling to participate in the study. Of these 460 students who were invited to participate, 123 questionnaires were completed, giving a response level of 26.7% overall.
Students were invited to participate in the experiment through a written invitation (Plain Language Statement) on the unit website, where participation was entirely voluntary. While the subjects from the Toncar and Munch (2003) study came from North America, the subjects from the current study were a mix of Australian and International students. Of these subjects, a total of 71 were from Australia and 52 from outside countries. Hence, this study was conducted in a different context, however, it was anticipated that it would yield similar results to those of Toncar and Munch (2003).
Procedure and Data Collection Method
Testing the hypotheses involved the use of an online experiment, where a self-administered online questionnaire was used to collect data. While Toncar and Munch (2003) chose to physically deliver the experiment to participants, the current study utilised the Internet for experimental research. The type of medium may have an impact on the results, and hence, this study explored if a different medium would yield the same results.
To begin the experiment, an active browser link to the online experiment with the particular ad was placed on the unit website on the intranet. Subjects were asked to view the ads and answer the questions that followed them. Of the twelve ads developed, four were placed on each web page, where these four contained copy (text) with the same claim structure [HREF3]. This between-subjects design meant that subjects were only allocated to one group.
Immediately after viewing the ads, subjects completed a questionnaire designed to measure the dependent variables [HREF3]. The final items on the questionnaire sought respondent information on demographics, including age; gender; and country of birth.
Since an online questionnaire was used, the data was automatically collected to a database on a Web server, thus eliminating the need for manual data entry and data entry errors. JavaScript was used to prevent any item-skipping by respondents on all inventories. This ensured there was no missing data. The data needed only to be imported into the statistical software package SPSS.
Measurement of Claim Believability & Importance (Attitude)
Consistent with Toncar and Munch (2003), scales measuring the beliefs and importance of claims were used to determine if tropes had an influence on attitude (where they use Fishbein’s theory of attitude formation and change to justify using these measures). The seven-point scale was chosen as it is more sensitive than a three or five-point scale, where it more accurately measures variability in responses (Zikmund, 1997 p. 357). The advantages of using such scaled response questions is that are relatively easy to use and they are useful where information is difficult to quantify (Frazer & Lawley, 2000). The main disadvantage of scaled response questions should also be highlighted, where response bias may occur (Frazer & Lawley, 2000). Nevertheless, the present study used these scales, where they came directly from the Toncar and Munch (2003) study.
Immediately after reading the tropes, subjects were asked to rate the believability and importance of the claims by using single item seven-point semantic differential scales [See HREF3]. The believability scales were anchored by “not very likely/very likely”. The importance scales were anchored by “not very important/very important”. Both of these scales came directly from the Toncar and Munch (2003) study. This meant that they had been pre-tested, and, therefore, adequately served their purpose in the research process. That is, these scales had already been tested for reliability and validity and had been found to measure the key variables involved in this study. Subject responses were analysed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).
Measurement of Counterarguing
The effects of the use of tropes on counterarguing were measured by the summation of two semantic differential scales [See HREF3]. These scales were anchored with “I argued/agreed with the ad”, and “I rejected/accepted the ad’s point”. This self-reported degree of counterarguing was taken directly from McQuarrie and Mick (1992). They used these scales to measure the amount of counterarguing produced by ads, where it was modelled on that used by Deighton et al. (1989). Therefore, these previously developed items were already pre-tested for their validity and reliability to measure the key variable in question (counterarguing). The summed scale for counterarguing had satisfactory reliability, with alphas ranging from 0.89 to 0.94. Subject responses were analysed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).
Of the 460 students invited to participate in the study, a total of 123 students chose to complete the questionnaire. When speaking with the instructors involved in the undergraduate units the sample came from, they initially predicted that subjects would be interested in the experiment as it was related to topics they were studying. However, as this was the first time the Marketing Management unit had been taught online, they could not predict the low interest levels. Late in the semester the lecturers were able to identify where the problem lay. They posited that subjects were more interested in completing online tasks, such as weekly online tests, that counted toward their assessment for the unit. That is, the study conflicted with their desire to participate in online discussions and other workshop tasks which counted towards their assessment, and would help their overall marks for the unit.
It is possible for this online questionnaire to be criticised for nonresponse bias, where there may have been a difference between respondents and nonrespondents (Armstrong & Overton, 1977). Armstrong and Overton (1977) suggest that late responders may have answered differently than early responders. Thus, late respondents are considered to provide a good measure of the characteristics of nonrespondents (Armstrong & Overton, 1977). These early and late responses are said to occur over ‘successive waves’, where ‘waves’ refers to the response generated by the stimulus (Armstrong & Overton, 1977). In order to test nonresponse bias, the responses from the second wave (or late participants) can be compared to the responses from the first wave (or early participants) to determine if they are significantly higher, significantly lower, or not significantly different. A two-tailed test (0.05 level) would be used to do this. However, because the response levels for the current study were relatively low, this test of nonresponse bias was not possible. That is, to conduct such t-tests would have required (at least) 30 early and (at least) 30 late respondents.
Data Integrity
As previously mentioned, JavaScript was used on the online questionnaire to prevent any item-skipping by respondents on any (and all) inventories. The result was an absence of missing data.
The use of JavaScript to prevent missing data is not without its limitations. Because it forces subjects to answer all questions, it may have force subjects to give answers for things they wish not to. In addition, this imposed force can also result in premature exit from the questionnaire as a way for subjects to avoid answering questions they are reluctant to answer. In this instance, PHP tracking software designed to detect those participants who started the questionnaire but aborted before completing it, and used by researchers in previous studies (e.g., Zadeh et al., 2000), was not employed due to time, cost and university ethics committee considerations.
Respondent Characteristics
In total, 123 subjects participated in the experiment, and due to the use of Java Script in the HTML questionnaire, 123 useable questionnaires were analysed. Table 3 summarises the descriptive statistics of these subjects, illustrating that 46 subjects viewed ads with complex tropes, 41 with simple tropes, and 36 with explicit claims. The majority of subjects were under the age of 29, and many more females than males viewed the complex trope and explicit claim ads. The reason for this is not clear.
In terms of the region, most subjects, in all three ad conditions, indicated that they had lived most of the past 10 years in Australia. Other regions with large participant numbers were the Republic of China, South-East Asia, and ‘Other’ countries. Similar proportions of participants from each region viewed the different ads.
Table 3. Profile of experimental sample
| Respondents' Characteristics |
Simple |
Simple |
Complex |
Complex |
Explicit |
Explicit |
|
(count) |
(percent) |
(count) |
(percent) |
(count) |
(percent) |
|
| Claim Type | ||||||
| Simple |
41 |
33.3 |
||||
| Complex |
46 |
37.4 |
||||
| Explicit |
36 |
29.3 |
||||
| Gender | ||||||
| Female |
19 |
46.3 |
28 |
60.9 |
22 |
61.1 |
| Male |
22 |
53.7 |
18 |
39.1 |
14 |
38.9 |
| Age | ||||||
| Under 20 years |
10 |
24.4 |
9 |
19.6 |
11 |
30.6 |
| 20-29 |
30 |
73.2 |
32 |
69.6 |
23 |
63.9 |
| 30-39 |
1 |
2.4 |
3 |
6.5 |
0 |
0.0 |
| 40-49 |
0 |
0 |
1 |
2.2 |
1 |
2.8 |
| 50-59 |
0 |
0 |
1 |
2.2 |
1 |
2.8 |
| Region | ||||||
| Australia |
23 |
56.1 |
26 |
56.5 |
22 |
61.1 |
| India |
1 |
2.4 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
| New Zealand |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
1 |
2.8 |
| Northern Europe |
0 |
0 |
1 |
2.2 |
0 |
0 |
| Republic of China |
6 |
14.6 |
8 |
17.4 |
6 |
16.7 |
| Republic of South Africa |
1 |
2.4 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
| South-East Asia |
5 |
12.2 |
4 |
8.7 |
3 |
8.3 |
| Other Country |
5 |
12.2 |
7 |
15.2 |
4 |
11.1 |
Subjects in both focus groups considered the meanings of each set of claims, in the first, second, and fourth set of claims to be the same, i.e., no differences could be identified. However, with regard to the third set of claims, subjects in both of the focus groups initially considered the claims to be different. When probed for further explanation as to how they differed, subjects explained that the simple and complex tropes had a much less explicit conclusion, and were open to much more interpretation than the explicit claims. Furthermore, they indicated that trope conclusions in this third set of claims were highly ambiguous and indeterminate, where the decoding difficulty level was not dissimilar.
Subjects pointed out that the simple and complex tropes in the first, second, and fourth sets of claims had equally simple interpretation difficulty levels, where the relative simplicity of them meant they could be decoded at similar rapid speeds. However, in saying this, they did consider the complex tropes to be more open in their conclusion than their simple counterparts.
The findings revealed that the claims were equivalent in their meaning, that the difficulty level in decoding the two types of tropes was equally simple, and that the complex tropes were slightly more open in their conclusion. The tropes were not changed to account for the decoding difficulty level, as they were still found to be equivalent in meaning; which was the aim of the pre-test. If the trope claims were changed to make the complex tropes more difficult to decode, then the results of this study could not be compared to Toncar and Munch’s (2003) results to see if their findings are robust enough to generalise beyond the sample they used.
With regard to the third set of claims, the results revealed a negative aspect of using tropes. That is, they can be too implicit in their conclusion to interpret. As Berlyne (1971) suggests, high levels of ambiguity can influence displeasure. Or, as McQuarrie and Mick (1992) suggest, the extreme levels of deviation in a rhetorical figure could make it possible that it may generate uncertainty instead of interest, and therefore, have a damaging effect.
In addition, the results show how tropes can be misinterpreted when they have such a hidden conclusion in the claim meaning. Ahearne, Gruen, and Saxton (2000), and Kardes, Kim, and Lim (1994) highlight this point. If the researcher was not there to moderate the discussion of these focus groups, then it is possible, as Sawyer and Howard (1991) suggest, that conclusions may have failed to be formed at all.
It is to be noted that for the same reasons, neither the degree of decoding difficulty in the adopted claims for the current study, nor the high level of ambiguity were changed in the current study.
Tables 4 and 5 present the means for the believability and importance measures. Hypotheses one (H1) and two (H2) are not supported. Where each pair of the simple tropes and explicit claims was used, there was no significant difference in the believability of the claims, or perceived importance of the product features. This was also the case between each pair of the complex tropes and explicit claims, where there was also no significant difference in believability or perceived importance. Thus, hypotheses three (H3) and four (H4) are not supported.
Overall, it appears that claims structured as either simple or complex tropes, when compared with explicit claims, have no apparent effect on enhancing persuasion, or a positive attitude, for those who viewed them. In the case of the samples used in this study, structuring claims as tropes did not make them more effective, whether they were simple or complex.
Table 4. Means and standard deviation for Believability
|
Claim Structure |
|||||
|
Claim Sets |
explicit |
simple |
complex |
F-Ratio |
Sig. |
|
claim set 1 |
3.83 |
4.02 |
3.52 |
1.05 |
0.35 |
|
|
(1.54) |
(1.65) |
(1.68) |
|
|
|
claim set 2 |
4.58 |
4.58 |
4.08 |
1.32 |
0.27 |
|
(1.29) |
(1.89) |
(1.64) |
|
|
|
|
claim set 3 |
3.69 |
4.24 |
3.52 |
1.52 |
0.22 |
|
|
(1.72) |
(2.21) |
(1.97) |
|
|
|
claim set 4 |
3.61 |
3.95 |
3.82 |
0.35 |
0.70 |
|
|
(1.85) |
(1.80) |
(1.71) |
|
|
| Claim means based on seven point semantic differential scale, with Belief scale anchored by 1 = unlikely, 7 = likely. | |||||
Table 5. Means and standard deviation for Importance
|
Claim Structure |
|||||
|
Claim Sets |
explicit |
simple |
complex |
F-Ratio |
Sig. |
|
claim set 1 |
4.47 |
4.15 |
4.00 |
0.74 |
0.47 |
|
|
(1.62) |
(1.68) |
(1.92) |
|
|
|
claim set 2 |
5.08 |
4.70 |
4.58 |
0.87 |
0.41 |
|
|
(1.42) |
(1.87) |
(1.80) |
|
|
|
claim set 3 |
3.52 |
4.12 |
3.84 |
0.81 |
0.44 |
|
|
(1.94) |
(2.14) |
(2.01) |
|
|
|
claim set 4 |
4.13 |
3.87 |
4.36 |
0.86 |
0.42 |
|
(1.83) |
(1.63) |
(1.76) |
|
|
|
|
Claim means based on
seven point semantic differential scale, with importance scale anchored |
|||||
There was no significant difference between the amount of counterarguing produced by each pair of the ads with complex and simple tropes, as shown in Table 6. Thus, hypothesis five (H5) is not supported.
The results for this measure of counterarguing suggest that attitude is not necessarily more positive, as subjects did not counterargue less when presented with ads containing complex tropes.
Table 6. Means and standard deviations for Counterarguing
|
Claim Structure |
|||||
|
Claim Sets |
explicit |
simple |
complex |
F-Ratio |
Sig. |
|
claim set 1 |
3.84 |
3.51 |
3.56 |
0.51 |
0.60 |
|
|
(1.32) |
(1.63) |
(1.63) |
|
|
|
claim set 2 |
4.66 |
4.17 |
4.38 |
0.74 |
0.47 |
|
|
(1.37) |
(2.07) |
(1.78) |
|
|
|
claim set 3 |
3.47 |
3.85 |
4.40 |
2.40 |
0.09 |
|
|
(1.69) |
(2.18) |
(1.86) |
|
|
|
claim set 4 |
3.20 |
3.40 |
3.92 |
1.84 |
0.16 |
|
|
(1.66) |
(1.97) |
(1.63) |
|
|
|
Claim means based on the summation of two seven point
semantic differential scales, with the scales anchored by 1 = argued, 7 = agreed, and by 1 = rejected, 7 = accepted. |
|||||
| Higher numbers indicate agreement or acceptance of the point made in the ad | |||||
The purpose of this research was to replicate, as far as possible, the study undertaken by Toncar and Munch (2003). The study set out to investigate whether the results they obtained on the effects of tropes would be generalisable, when a different medium is used to deliver the experiment, and when conducted in a different cultural context.
In light of the findings of Toncar and Munch (2003) which suggest tropes have positive attitudinal (or persuasive) effects, the tropes in this study appeared to have little or no influence for the subjects who viewed them. That is, the 123 subjects demonstrated no change in attitude for any manipulated element (claim structure) of the ads shown.
Using Fishbein’s theory, changes in beliefs and importance evaluations of viewers were used to determine if tropes influence attitudes. Both simple and complex tropes were found not to influence the perceived believability of claims or importance of product features. Toncar and Munch (2003) obtained the same results with simple tropes. However, they found that complex tropes were more believable and perceived as more important than explicit claims. Thus, the main effect of tropes that were reported by Toncar and Munch (2003) have not been supported in this study.
The results in this study could have been influenced by the current stage of the product (portable CD-player) in the ‘product life cycle’. A product life cycle “consists of the aggregate demand over an extended period of time for all brands comprising a generic product category” (Miller & Layton 2000, p. 288). With the rise of technology, and the subsequent growing popularity of MP3 players, the portable CD-player has probably reached the decline stage. Miller and Layton (2000) suggest that products reach the decline stage for the following reasons: the need for the product disappears, where this is often the result of another product development; people grow tired of the product; and/or a better or less expensive product is developed to fill the same need.
Arguably, the MP3 player is replacing the portable CD-player, given its portability, capacity and battery life. With the passing of time since Toncar and Munch’s (2003) study, MP3 players have become less expensive. As a fairly new product, the MP3 player would now be in the ‘growth’ stage in its product life cycle. In this stage, sales of the product tend rise at rapid rates, and prices tend to fall steeply even as the industry is growing rapidly (Miller & Layton 2000). Arguably, with these things in mind, the MP3 player would have been a more appropriate product to use, as today’s students would be familiar, but not overly familiar, with this product. However, the MP3 player was not used as the product category, for the claims would have had to be changed, meaning that different ads would have been used. If different experimental stimuli were used, then it would not have been possible to extend Toncar and Munch’s (2003) study to test for robustness.
A consequence of the CD-player being in the decline stage may be that the student’s in the experiment were overly familiar with the product or no longer interested in the product. If this was the case, then it is possible that subjects already had pre-developed attitudes in regard to the product, where it may have influenced the way they responded to the product claims. Hence, it was not possible for the ad to take advantage of respondents’ attitudes that were formed independently of their own range of experiences. Smith and Swinyard (1983) suggest that attitudes held with no prior experience of the product are held with less confidence and are susceptible to change. Subsequently, and in support of this, the ads shown may not have influenced attitudes because the prior experience with the product category made the attitude less vulnerable to change.
The level of interpretation difficulty between the tropes can also help to explain the results obtained in this study. The pre-test supports this assertion for it was found that the complex tropes were equally as easy as their simple counterparts to comprehend. This should have implications on persuasion, as McQuarrie and Mick (1996) claim that complex tropes should be more difficult to decode and comprehend. Therefore, if these tropes were too simple to comprehend, then they may not have elicited the appropriate affective responses that would have resulted in changes in beliefs and importance evaluations of viewers. In turn, they could not exert a favourable impact on product and ad attitude. In other words, because the tropes were too easily decoded, they may not have brought about a pleasure of text effect, where the act of interpreting the text may not have been intrinsically rewarding.
If the tropes in the experiment, in all groups of claims, could not yield a pleasurable response, then they might not be expected to influence mood. This should hold true, whether the trope types are equally simple or ambiguous to decode. This supports past researchers (McGuire 2000; Petty, Schumann, Richman & Strathman 1993; Krugman 1983; Laird 1974), who suggest that an induced positive mood should facilitate persuasion. Therefore, if the tropes could not bring about the affective responses, then they ultimately would not influence viewers’ attitudes.
The lack of influence the tropes in this study appeared to have on persuasion could also have been attributed to the order the claims were presented to the participants. The identical sequential order of the ads with the different trope claims may have allowed subjects to compare the claims to each other, using the scales to rate claims on a comparison basis. This could also help to explain the results of Toncar and Munch’s (2003) study, and highlights why their results should be interpreted with caution. Because they placed the four product claims on the one ad, subjects may also have been rating them in comparison to one another. In that, the four claims may have been perceived as portraying one total message, where subjects could have been rating them on a comparison of the strength they portrayed individually in regard to this overall message. If not done consciously, then they may have been doing so subconsciously, where the perceived message of a claim was based on the messages of the claims that surround it, as all four were in front of them the entire time they viewed the ad.
With regard to counterarguing, Toncar & Munch (2003) found that complex tropes inhibited the processing of claims, thus, reducing counterarguing. This result lays support for the suggested inherent function of complex tropes to produce more favourable product attitudes. This study, however, found no significant difference in the level of counterarguing between the three claims. This suggests that complex tropes do not produce a more favourable product attitude, because subjects did not counterargue less when presented with the ads containing complex tropes.
When considering the overall findings for the dependent measures, it can be said that tropes, being simple or complex, do not produce more favourable product attitudes in the context of attitude formation. The suggested pleasure created when a trope is successfully decoded did not reduce counterarguing.
The high levels of ambiguity for both tropes for the third set of claims can explain why there was no difference in the levels of counterarguing for all three claims. This would support Berlyne (1971) and McQuarrie and Mick (1996) who posit that a message that places too many demands is likely to be unsuccessful. It is possible that because the trope was so ambiguous, viewers gave up trying to decode the trope and concentrated more on the argument of the message. In this way, the trope did not use any subtlety to obscure its underlying argument.
This study found that tropes, being simple or complex, have no apparent influence on attitude or counterarguing. This result holds true when using subjective measures, as initiated by Toncar and Munch (2003). The results are inconsistent with those of Toncar and Munch (2003), who found complex tropes to be more persuasive.
However, it is suggested that among reasons for the discrepancy in findings is the fact that there may be flaws in the experimental design employed by Toncar and Munch (2003). Also, the small sample employed in the present study may also have had an influence on the results.
This study yielded several contradicting results in an attempt to add to the generalisability, reliability, and validity of Toncar and Munch’s (2003) study.
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