Peter Vitartas, Lecturer [HREF1], School of Commerce and Management, Southern Cross University [HREF2], PO Box 157, Lismore NSW 2480. pvitarta@scu.edu.au
This paper examines factors that influence the likly adoption of new software that facilitates synchronous web conferencing into three subjects offered by a business school at a tertiary instituion in Australia. A model of self-efficacy for using Elluminate [HREF3] is developed which includes measures for motivation, achievement goal orientation, and computer anxiety (moderated by personal innovativeness of information technology). The model was tested and a refined model based on modification fix indices is presented. The findings suggest that self efficacy was influenced by two achievement goal orientations - the goal to demonstrate ability and the goal of not wanting to appear to fail - avoidance goal orientation. Trait anxiety and computer anxiety were found to be associated with motivational goals. Cluster analysis identified two groups that were differentiated by age and trait anxiety. Younger students were found to have higher levels of trait anxiety but were keen to show their ability and avoid being embarrassed using the software. The findings have implications for educators introducing new software into the learning environment. The implications and study limitations are discussed.
The introduction of new software and computer programs into the class situation is often difficult and it is important for educators to understand the factors affecting a students' preparedness to become involved in, and to utilise, a new software program that is being trialled for instruction and educational activities.
Currently Elluminate, a web based conferencing program is being trialled at Southern Cross University as a tool to deliver online synchronous meetings with students. A number of staff are involved in the trial and they have incorporated it into the delivery options for students. A more detailed explanation of this trial is outlined in a separate paper by Rowe and Ellis (2006) presented at this conference.
This paper examines the influence and effect of goal orientations, personal
traits and the level of computer anxiety on students' self efficacy of using
the new program. Self-efficacy refers to an individual's estimate or personal
judgment of his or her own ability to succeed in reaching a specific goal (Bandura
1986).
For instructors, introducing new computer software into the instructional design faces a number of barriers. The introduction of programs such as Blackboard and Web CT have taken many years and yet adoption is still not complete. Limitations, such as students having access to computers, have been largely overcome but there is still resistance by some students and instructors. The introduction of any new software will have its critics and problems until students have used and become familiar with the software. In business courses most students have become familiar with online systems such as Blackboard and Web CT and students at many Universities throughout Australia are being introduced to other Internet based applications such as online enrolment.
The problem being addressed in this study was to identify what factors would limit students adoption of Elluminate and how could students' perceptions of difficulty and lack of experience with the software, be overcome? In effect what are the factors that inhibited the use and adoption of the new software?
An examination of the self efficacy of using the new software was chosen because it provides an insight into students' judgments of what they believed they could do in the adoption of the software. In addition the measure of self-efficacy does not refer to component skills, like the ability to use Internet or specific computer skills but instead relies on the students' judgments of their ability to apply their skills to the overall task. In addition the measure of self-efficacy used in this study provided information on the magnitude of the level of capability and the strength or level of conviction about the judgment made by the student (Compeau and Higgins 1995).
In addition to students' individual judgements a number of personality traits have been identified as influencing IT acceptance and use (Marakas et al. 2000). Traits such as innovativeness (Agarwal and Prasad 1998) and computer anxiety (Harrison and Rainer 1992) have been found to influence the way information technology is used and perceived (Thatcher and Perrewe 2002). In addition it was expected that a students' motivation toward their study would be influential in their willingness to learn and become involved in adopting the new software. A relatively recent development in motivational research has been the emergence of achievement goal orientation theory (Dweck and Leggett 1988) as a new direction in motivation theory (Midgley et al. 1998). Achievement goals have been shown to include the goal to develop ability, the goal to demonstrate ability and the goal to avoid demonstrating the lack of ability (Midgley et al. 1998). Achievement goal theory was considered appropriate to investigate in this study as it has been developed in a social-cognitive framework that focuses on the aims or purposes pursued in an achievement setting (Ames 1987). This framework is not dissimilar to that used for self-efficacy and focuses on how the student thinks about themselves, their tasks and their performance. Based on previous research by Thatcher and Perrewe (Thatcher and Perrewe 2002) and work by Midgley et al., (Midgley et al. 1998) a theoretical model of self efficacy for using Elluminate was developed. The model is presented in Figure 1.
The study was conducted at the beginning of the semester as an on-line, pre-class survey, conducted in classes that were scheduled to use Elluminate. The surveys were undertaken in five subjects within the Faculty of Business at Southern Cross University. The units included a first year introductory quantitative analysis unit, two accounting units and two marketing units and completed by students studying from a number of campus locations included students studying in external mode.
The survey was divided into six sections, each section collected information on one of the attributes of interest, namely; self-efficacy of using Elluminate, computer anxiety, achievement goal orientation, personal innovativeness and trait anxiety. The final section collected data for classification purposes. A total of 85 students responded to the survey, 56% were female, 44% male. The majority indicated they intended to use Elluminate (66%) while 28% were unsure and 6% indicated they did not intend to use elluminate.
The data was analysed using SPSS and the model was tested using AMOS5.
Each of the constructs were tested for unidimensionality, reliability and validity prior to the specification of the structural model. The measurement and assessment of each construct is out below.
Computer anxiety was measured using four items drawn from the computer anxiety rating scale (Heinssen et al. 1987). Respondents evaluated whether computers were intimidating or inspired apprehensive feelings on a scale of 1-5 with 1 being strongly disagree through to 5 being strongly agree. Compeau and Higgins (Compeau and Higgins 1995) and Thatcher and Perrewe (Thatcher and Perrewe 2002)also investigated the scale and confirmed the four items were good measures of anxiety associated with computer use.
Results from this study found the four items had a mean of 1.76 and a variance of 1.18 indicating that there was relatively low computer anxiety across the cohort of students. Table 1 presents the results of selected fit indices satisfy the requirements of unidimensionality. The Cronbach alph coefficient for the four items was .92 indicating good reliability and all the regression coefficients between the indicators and latent factor were significant at <.001 demonstrating convergent validity.
Trait anxiety was measured using four items drawn from Lehrer and Woolfolk (Lehrer and Woolfolk 1982). Respondents were asked to report feelings of anxiety and mental preoccupation with problems experienced during a typical day. Results were measured on a five point scale with 1 being strongly disagree through to 5 being strongly agree. The scale has been tested by Thatcher and Perrewe (Thatcher and Perrewe 2002) who found confirmed the items reliability and validity.
The scale had a mean of 2.48 and a variance of .85. Results of selected fit indices reported in Table 1 satisfy the requirements of unidimensionality. The four items had a Cronbach alph coefficient of .67 which is just below the suggested level of .7 but was considered appropriate for the purposes of this exploratory study. All the regression coefficients between the indicators and latent factor were significant at <.005 demonstrating convergent validity.
Personal innovativeness in IT was measured using four items developed by Agarwal and Prasad (Agarwal and Prasad 1998). The scale has also been tested by Agarwal and Karahanna (Agarwal and Karahanna 2000) and Thatcher and Perrewe (Thatcher and Perrewe 2002) who confirmed the items were good indicators of a person's propensity to experiment with new information technology.
Results from this study found the four items, as measured on a five point scale with 1 being strongly disagree through to 5 being strongly agree, had a mean of 3.58 and a variance of .83 indicating the sample tended to agree that they were innovative in information technology. Results of selected fit indices reported in Table 1 satisfy the requirements of unidimensionality and the Cronbach alpha was .80 indicating acceptable reliability. All the regression coefficients between the indicators and latent factor were significant at <.001 demonstrating convergent validity.
Achievement goal orientation consisted of three constructs each measured with six indicators as developed by (Midgley et al. 1998). These were assessed individually and the results are presented next.
Task goal orientation is the goal to develop ability. The construct consisted of six items and had a mean of 4.02 and a variance of .50 indicating that respondents were task goal oriented. Results from this study found the items, as measured on a five point scale with 1 being strongly disagree through to 5 being strongly agree, of selected fit indices reported in Table 1 satisfy the requirements of unidimensionality and the Cronbach alpha was .84 indicating acceptable reliability. All the regression coefficients between the indicators and latent factor were significant at <.001 demonstrating convergent validity.
Ability-approach goal orientation is the goal to demonstrate ability. The construct was measured consisting of six items and had a mean of 3.15 and a variance of 1.0 indicating that respondents were only slightly ability-approach goal oriented. Results from this study found the items, as measured on the five point scales, do not satisfy the requirements of unidimensionality for most of the indices reported. However the Cronbach alpha was acceptable at .81 indicating reliability and all the regression coefficients between the indicators and latent factor were significant at <.05 level.
Ability-avoidance goal orientation is the goal to avoid demonstrating the lack of ability. The six items for this construct had a mean of 2.65 and a variance of .94 indicating the sample did not have a strong ability-avoidance goal orientation. As with the ability-approach goal orientation indices for unidimensionality were not satisfied. Although reliability was acceptable as measured by the Cronbach alpha coefficient of .79. In addition all the regression coefficients between the indicators and latent factor were significant at <.001 level.
A test of the combined model of achievement goal orientation did not run indicating the three variables did not form a single construct. Further investigation of the construct is needed for this measure. As this was an exploratory study the three constructs were included in the overall model of self efficacy as individual constructs.
Self-efficacy of using Elluminate was measured using ten items adapted from
(Compeau and Higgins 1995). The ten items were measured on a scale of 1 to 5
with 1 being not at all confident using the software to 5 being totally confident
using the software. Where respondents indicated they would not be able to use
the scale under the conditions identified a score of zero was used. The scale
had a mean of 3.04 and a variance of 2.93 indicating the sample on average were
moderately confident using the software, although the high variance indicated
a wide range of confidence levels. Indices for unidimensionality were not satisfied
as reported in Table 1. Reliability was acceptable as measured by the Cronbach
alpha coefficient of .92 and all the regression coefficients between the indicators
and latent factor were significant at <.001 level.
The requirements of unidimensionality as recommended by Hair et al (Hair et al. 2006)were not met for AaGO, AavGO and Self-Efficacy indicating further analysis of the components of these scales need investigation. However measures of reliability and convergent validity were acceptable for all the constructs measured. Failure to meet requirements of unidimensionality is a necessary requirement for SEM so instead confirmatory factor analysis was undertaken to examine the relationship between the constructs and the dependent variable of self-efficacy for using Elluminate by examining the regression scores. This analysis was undertaken in AMOS5. The analysis is explained in the following section.
The hypothesised structural model was tested using a one-step approach, as recommended when a model possesses both strong theoretical rationale and highly reliable measures (Hair et al. 2006). The model was also constructed with composite scores being calculated for each factor. This is an approach recommended by Ping (Ping 2004) for larger structural models with smaller samples.
The model was run and a solution identified. An examination of the regression weights indicated that self-efficacy for using Elluminate was indicated by ability approach goal orientation, ability avoidance goal orientation and personal innovativeness in information technology. An examination of the modification fit indices revealed the model could be improved. Following a number of modifications a model for self-efficacy of using Elluminate was identified as defined in Figure 2. The findings are discussed in the following section.
The results from the analysis provide an insight into the factors affecting self-efficacy for Elluminate software and provide guidance for the development of training and support for students undertaking classes using the program.
Self-efficacy was found to be influenced by two achievement goal orientations. Ability-approach goal orientation, which is the goal to demonstrate ability, was found to be positive related to Elluminate self efficacy. Those respondents who had strong ability-approach goal orientations had more confidence in using Elluminate. Likewise ability avoidance goal orientation was negatively related to Elluminate self-efficacy indicating those respondents who have strong ability avoidance goal orientation have lower confidence in using Elluminate.
Both ability approach goal orientation and ability avoidance goal orientation were related positively related to trait anxiety. This finding highlights the underlying importance of trait anxiety in introducing new software. In addition ability avoidance goal orientation is influenced by computer anxiety while ability approach goal orientation is negatively related to computer anxiety. It would appear ability approach goal orientation respondents are confident using computers. Personal innovativeness was found to be negatively related to computer anxiety as was found by Thatcher and Perewe (Thatcher and Perrewe 2002). It in turn had a positive relationship with task goal orientation which is the goal to develop ability.
A cluster analysis of the findings based on the achievement goal orientations identified two groups that were differentiated by the age and trait anxiety. The first cluster were younger and had higher levels of trait anxiety. They also had higher levels of ability approach goal orientation and ability avoidance goal orientation. There was no difference by gender between these groups. The older cluster had lower levels of trait anxiety, ability approach goal orientation and ability avoidance goal orientation. These findings are interpreted as younger respondents having higher levels of anxiety and who are keen to show their ability and avoid being embarrassed.
In designing strategies and encouraging users to try Elluminate it is recommended that students be organised into groups where they work together on a simple project that would get them to use the software together. This way they can learn in the safety of a colleague and not be exposed to embarrassing moments in front of the lecturer or other class mates.
The findings presented here are exploratory and the final model proposed here has not been verified with a second sample of respondents. In addition the sample was obtained on a voluntary basis and non-response bias could exist. The findings are also limited to students enrolled in the Faculty of Business at Southern Cross University and therefore further research is needed to evaluate the applicability of the findings to a wider audience.
The findings reported here indicate that motivations such as achievement goal orientations had an effect on Elluminate self efficacy. In particular respondents who wanted to demonstrate their ability were more confident assessing whether they could use Elluminate. The findings also suggested those who were oriented toward developing their ability were no different in their assessed confidence to use Elluminate. Further research is necessary to confirm the relationships found in this study.
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Acknowledgement: The author gratefully acknowledges the support and assistance
of Mr Steve Rowe and Dr. Nicola Jayne for assistance in the collection of data
for this study.