Planning Internet Training Programs

Introduction

This paper reviews the literature of differences in learning style, computer and Internet use to determine the characteristics a successful course of Internet training should have to appeal to as broad a population base as possible.

Users of Technology

With regard to communication styles girls are taught a more passive voice and boys a more forceful, active voice (Lakoff, 1975; Mulvaney, 1994). In a peer group of girls discretion and modesty are valued and lead to greater popularity while speaking up and being assertive is suspect (Baran, 1987). Wood (1994:143) states "women see talk as the essence of a relationship while men use talk to exert control, preserve independence and enhance status." Carol Gilligan, reported in Mulvaney (1994, online), believes from her research in psychology that "female identity revolves around interconnectedness and relationship". Conversely she argues that male identity "stresses separation and independence."

"Females tend to score lower than males on measures of computer aptitude and attitudes." (Williams et al, 1993:515). Hattie and Fitzgerald (1987) performed a meta-analysis of attitude studies. From these they found "small differences in attitude and no differences in achievement between males and females."(p3) They then undertook two studies of the Australian situation and concluded small attitudinal differences did occur. That as many males as females liked computers, but many more girls actively disliked them. There were no differences at the primary school level, but marked differences appeared as students progressed through secondary school.Women and men both think that men know more about and are more competent with computers and technology (Jackson, 1985; Temple and Lips, 1989; Williams et al, 1993). Even if women are trained to use computers and score as well as men on tests in this area they still do not see themselves as competent as equivalent males (Kramer, 1990). Also the majority of women believe other women would be more competent than themselves (Jackson, 1985, Kay, 1992, II).

One of the recommendations to improve gender equity in computer attitudes and hence use, by Temple and Lips (1989), was to concentrate on building comfort and confidence with computers, as they found high levels of interest already existed in female students. Another recommendation was to work at improving male student's attitudes to their female counterparts as they found females to be sensitive to negative attitudes in the educational environment. They do recommend repeating their study in other settings as they are unsure of the general applicability of their results.

Access to computers is a barrier to women, perhaps the most significant of all (Corley, 1994: online). Corley goes on to detail instances of time constraints that reduce accessibility of computers for women: that women's computer use at work is mostly limited to clerical tasks and using computers for others, so women don't often realise their potential for providing information and empowerment; that women don't have the spare time to learn computer networking which may become a time saver instead once it is mastered; that computer networking is a solitary experience rather than a family centred one that women need. Interactive Publishing Alert [HREF 2] (1995) has run a Survey of Women Online. The main findings were that women go online at the recommendation of family and friends; communication is the most important online activity and shopping ranks last; the biggest barriers are seen as time and money. Women would be more likely to join the online world if the service would save them time or money; if they could quickly and easily find what they need; if they were given a sense of community (perhaps by being mentored by other users), and if they were assured of a secure environment (for example not subjected to 'flame wars').

There has not been much opportunity for over 60's to acquire computer experience as most access to computers has been in schools and workplaces where older people are uncommon, (Lehman, 1994). Nevertheless older learners are often both more enthusiastic and more involved than younger ones. In workshops a slower pace and frequent revision help to overcome any reduction in visual, auditory and memory capacities of older attendees. Use of the Internet by older people may help them to maintain links with the external world (especially for disabled users or those with limited mobility), to communicate with relatives and friends living distantly, and to help make lifelong learning a reality (Lehman, 1994). Online networks such as America Online have friendlier interfaces to work with and more family oriented services available (compared with the general internet) plus consumer oriented marketing. America Online offers an online service for the mature market called SeniorNet, the gender ratio of which is reported as 51% female, 49% male (Shade, 1993). Figures from these networks are more reliable than the general Internet, where estimates are all that is possible.

One of the biggest challenges is to provide access for and encourage people who don't have the financial and technical support of academic institutions. Shade (1993) suggests some ways to do this: establishing community networks with free access in public places, establishing mentoring programs through those already on the net, developing programs and services for children and minority groups. There are sites on the Internet of special interest to most minority groups. This is one of the strengths of the internet. For example on the VICNET [HREF2] site under the categories of Community Groups and Clubs & Organisation there are about 95 listed, for example Australian Soaring WWW (ie gliding), Disability Information Network, Malay Community of Victoria, Seniors On-line and Society for Growing Australian Plants.

Learning Styles

Enns (1993) summarises a range of studies on differences in 'ways of knowing'. She argues: "Age, social class, and ethnic differences may be as influential in defining differences as the gender-related explanations." (p8) She comes to the conclusion that learning environments should not try to separate groups but to become more inclusive, and that by incorporating opportunities for students to think about their own goals and to "develop skills in planning, negotiating, evaluating and making decisions" (p8) all participants will become empowered.

Lewis (1982) has identified four basic learning style preferences:

• Visual - learn best when shown things they can see and when analogies are to visual items.
• Auditory - learn best when they hear things spoken and when analogies are to music, sound.
• Kinaesthetic - learn best when they can move about and involve their body in the learning act and when analogies are to activities.
• Tactual - learn best when they are actively doing things with their hands rather than their entire bodies.

All students would benefit if all four modes are used in teaching.

As well Filipczak (1995) reports that there are two styles of processing information once it has been acquired:
Global - prefer an overview first, then assimilate individual facts to add to the picture. In adults this occurs in 55% of individuals
Analytical - prefer individual facts, followed by the overall picture later. In adults this occurs in 28% of cases.
The rest can process either way.The ideal situation would be to segregate participants according to processing style and train the groups separately. Filipczak also reports that using the newly learnt ideas or skills creatively (for example by making something) is an effective way to retain the information.

Adult Learning

Grupe and Connolly (1995) write specifically about computer training for adults. They emphasise that trainers need to be student centred and understand that motivation is different in adults; that they build on their current skills and take training courses for specific purposes rather than for general personal growth.They believe the main elements of good training would:

• provide adults with a summary of what the workshop will achieve and assess their current knowledge levels;
• use competency-based objectives;
• start on time;
• allow opportunities for discussion and for participants to contribute their life experiences;
• treat the participants as peers;
• try to solve any particular problems/needs the participants have brought with them;
• and accommodate their various learning styles.

Evaluations should focus on how well the presenter is teaching, what parts of the workshop might not be working, and whether the training goals have been met.

Training Planning

Training for Internet use is a necessity. Shade (1993) states: "Novice network users - both men and women - often find that they are overwhelmed by the mountains of text available on the Internet" (online)

Training sessions to mixed groups should try to provide reinforcement to all four learning types and there should not be too great a wait for any trainee before their type is catered to. In the situation of providing half-day workshops visual reinforcement to verbal lectures could be included and the lectures should be in short segments interspersed with active exercises on the computers. Also the freedom to get up and move about the class and regular breaks for stretching legs etc should be incorporated.

Clark (1992) states "most work with computers involves manipulation of information and communication with people, which relies as much on verbal and interpersonal skills as on mathematical abilities...To be a highly sophisticated user it is not essential to be a technician."(online) Expertise on the Internet requires exactly these skills. Courses can and should be focussed on the informational content and not concentrate on the nuts and bolts of the computer equipment. (Cunningham, 1994)

"Educational environments are most successful which a) balance challenge and support and b) build on students areas of strength in order to help remediate areas of weakness". (Pearson, 1992:8)

References

Baran, Grazyna (1987) Teaching girls science . Gender and Expertise, McNeil, Maureen. London, Free Association Books, 87-102

Clarke, Valerie (1992) Strategies for involving girls in computer science. Search of Gender Free Paradigms for Computer Science Education, Martin, C. Diane and Murchie-Beyma Eric (eds) . Eugene, OR, International Society for Technology in Education

Corley, Ruth Anne (1994) Women, Technology and the Internet: How will the three getalong? Working Papers in Communication Technology and Culture, online, URL= http://www.carleton .ca/~jweston/papers/corley.94

Cunningham, Sally Jo (1994) Guidelines for an introduction to networking: a review of the literature The Arachnet Electronic Journal on Virtual Culture, V2(3), ISSN:1068-5723, online, URL= ftp://byrd.mu.wvnet.edu/pub/ejvc/CUNNINGH V2N3

Enns, Carolyn Zerbe (1993) Integrating separate and connected knowing: the experiential learning model. Teaching of Psychology, V20(1),7-13

Filipczak, Bob(1995) Different strokes: learning styles in the classroom. Training, March, V32(3), 43-48, online, ABI/Inform , Accession number 00998893.

Grupe, Fritz H and Connolly, Frank W. (1995) Grownups are different: computer training for adult learners. Journal of Systems Management, V46(1), Jan/Feb: 58-64

Hattie, John and Fitzgerald, Donald (1987) Sex differences in attitudes, achievement and use of computers. Australian Journal of Education, V31(1), 3-26

Jackson, Lorraine Morlock and Yamanaka, Ellen (1985) Measuring women's attitudes, goals and literacy toward computers and advanced technology. Educational Technology V25(2) February, 12-14

Kay, Robin H. (1992) Understanding gender differences in computer attitudes, aptitude and use: an invitation to build theory . Journal of Research on Computing in Education, V25(2), Winter, 159-171

Lakoff, R. (1975) Language and Woman's Place New York, Harper

Lehman, Sheila (1994) I dreamed I had a computer just like the kids: access to computing for the older woman Women, Work and Computers, Adam, A et al (eds), Amsterdam, Elsevier, 269-276

Mulvaney, Becky Michele (1994) Gender differences in communication: an intercultural experience, online, URL= http://www.cpsr.org/cps r/gender/mulvaney.txt

Pearson, Carol S. (1992) Women as learners: diversity and educational quality. Journal of Developmental Education, V16(2), Winter, 2-4,6,8,10,38-39

Shade , Leslie Regan (1993) Gender issues in computer networking. Community Networking: the International Free-Net Conference , online, URL= http://www.cp sr.org/cpsr/gender/leslie_regan_shade.txt

Temple, Linda and Lips, Hilary M. (1989) Gender differences and similarities in attitudes toward computers. Computers in Human Behaviour, V5, 215-226

Williams, Sue Winkle Ogletree, Shirley M. Woodburn, William Raffeld, Paul (1993) Gender roles, computer attitudes and dyadic computer interaction performance in college students. Sex Roles V29(7/8), 515-525

Wood, Julia T. (1994) Gendered lives: communication, gender and culture Belmont, CA, Wadsworth

Hypertext References

HREF1

http://www.cc.gatech.edu/gvu/user_surveys Georgia University of Technology, Graphics, Visualization, & Usability (GVU) Center's World Wide Web User Surveys

HREF2

http://www.netcreation.com/ipa/women.htm Interactive Publishing Alert (1995) Executive Summary Survey of Women Online

HREF3

http://vicnet.net.au/club.html - The page for Vicnet's Clubs, Societies and Organisations .

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