Recent initiatives at both state and Federal level indicate a political belief in the value of the Internet and the World Wide Web as a means of enhancing education (DEET. 1995, NSW Department of School Education. 1995). To this end 'the Commonwealth Government and the States and Territories have agreed.... on...the establishment of a comprehensive education network service, Education Network Australia (EdNA) (DEET. 1995)' '...so that students and teachers in all education sectors can share and disseminate information' (Crean, 1995b). The then minister for Employment, Education and Training, Simon Crean, extolled the potential virtues of EdNA and asserted '... it will change the way we communicate, the way we learn' (Crean, 1995a).
The history of the implementation and use of technologies, television, radio, video, and computers, suggests that if the technology cannot be incorporated into the status quo (Mechan, 1989, Oakes and Schneider, 1984) it will end up 'gathering dust in the corner of a classroom' (U.S. Department of Education, 1993).
The perception of the Internet, as acknowledged by the statements above, is essentially that it will change the 'way' students learn, by providing access to previously unimagined volumes of information. It is difficult, however, to find in any of these governmental policies, curricula and ministerial press releases any suggestion that telecommunications technologies will change the curriculum or 'what' students will learn. Statements such as 'identify computer based activities that you can integrate into existing learning activities (DSE, TILT, 1996) suggest an approach where the World Wide Web will be subsumed into the existing curriculum, as another technology, as another piece of coloured chalk. The impact of the Internet on the nature of the curriculum itself is not considered.
Essentially, the motivation for the use of telecommunications technologies such as the Internet is the belief that they will promote superior forms of learning or even to bring about school reform (U.S. Department of Education, 1993). However, as with many educational technologies, the World Wide Web appears to be a technological answer to the problem of providing students with access to information and reflects a view of education as 'content'.
Political rhetoric will result in schools being connected to the Internet but simply connecting a school to the Web will not in itself produce a radical change in teaching and learning. The logistics of providing one or two Internet connections to a school of 300-400 children and staff, combined with the history of the implementation of other technologies in schools such as computers, suggests that Internet access in schools will 'remain in the hands of the few' (U.S. Department of Education, 1993) for some time.
Initially it is more than likely that the World Wide Web will be 'domesticated' for use in primary classrooms. It may simply be nullified through a process of partial assimilation. However, this process of nullification, one that has been effectively employed by schools in the past, can only be effective if schools are the only point of access to the Internet. One computer connected to the Internet in a classroom is something that is not likely to occur in many schools for some years but one computer connected to the Internet in a home is a rapidly increasing reality. Clearly, the massive explosion of computers onto the domestic market, many pre-sold with Internet connections, means that many children will gain far more access to the World Wide Web through their home rather than the school. Again, this is a fundamental change in the ecology of knowledge where schools may face the reality of being bypassed as information suppliers and regulators. The challenge in this realisation is to integrate Internet access in the home environment into a school curriculum where the curriculum is not based on content or on the traditional ecology of knowledge. Schools which have previously projected themselves as suppliers and shapers of information will have that role seriously challenged when students have access to the Web in their home. If access to information is all that schools offer then it is reasonable to assume that the school may be bypassed as the conduit. Using the Internet successfully in primary classrooms does require access to the Internet, but the manner in which schools are currently being provided with access is relatively limited and will contrast with access to the Web obtained through computers used in homes.
Our western society/culture is a print or text based culture and print has evolved with our culture and in turn our culture has evolved along with print. McLuhan argues that one of the most important features of text is metaphorical; where there is a metaphorical transfer of the characteristics of the communication medium (print and the codex book) to other aspects of the culture. The medium itself becomes the metaphor (McLuhan, 1964). The influence of this print based metaphor is evident in the organisation of schools and the curriculum which, like printed books, are arranged hierarchically and progression is through stages (chapters) in a lineal manner much like the 'race course' metaphor from which the word curriculum is derived. The influence this mechanical arrangement of print has had on the way we think is often assumed to be axiomatic; a premise almost beyond question in itself. 'Thinking about thinking in ways which categorise knowledge linearly has led to an epistemological view supporting the existence of levels or stages of knowledge' (Goldman-Seagall, 1993). Metaphores derived from the influence of the print culture in turn influence pedagogy and curriculum.
Many Australian curricula written in the past few years (National Profiles, Science and Technology K-6) have incorporated the notion of stages but these stages do not reflect the work of Piaget or others. These documents reflect more a bureaucratic need to arrange the content of a curriculum like chapters in a book for organisational reasons rather than any epistemological assumptions as their is little overlap between the 'stages' suggested in the curriculum documents and the developmental 'stages' suggested by writers such as Piaget. They reflect a content based pedagogy which suits the organisational structures of schools more than the development of individual children. Given the cultural acceptance of this paradigm it is understandable that the Internet is perceived as a technology which will reinforce the paradigm rather than challenge it completely.
Statements such as 'In and of themselves, technologies are essentially neutral with respect to instructional principles (U.S. Department of Education, 1993) assert a view in which the nature of the curriculum is not challenged by any technology. In this view the World Wide Web and its hypertextual environment are benign because they are perceived as a means of reinforcing the text/print based paradigm of our education systems. The dominance of this paradigm results in the World Wide Web being projected as a means to 'enrich education' that can be utilised when appropriate strategies are developed to '... integrate networked services into educational practices and structures' (Commonwealth Government, 1993). The value of the technology is acknowledged but only within 'current educational practices and structures' and within the current perceptions of curriculum.
The focus of these government initiatives in telecommunications technologies is 'knowing how to access information locally and from around the world' (NSW Department of School Education, 1995). Such a skills based approach to the Internet focuses on the technology as a tool, rather than as a new 'ecology of knowledge' (Lyman, 1994), and overlooks the very challenge to the nature of the curriculum that may result from the provision of access to this environment by individual students. This possibility is not reflected in any of the government statements and reflects a view of children as consumers of information, rather than creators of information and their own understandings.
The fundamental change in the 'ecology of knowledge' (Lyman, 1994) reflected in the World Wide Web is to a cyberecology typified by volume, access, immediacy and connectedness, where the 'referential structure' (Bolter, 1991) is idiosyncratically constructed and the value of knowledge is not prescribed so much by the text or curriculum as by the individual user and creator. In such an 'ecology' linearity, hierarchy and separateness are confronted by volume and connectedness and individual users decide on the value of knowledge.
Ted Nelson, who originally coined the term Hypertext defines it as 'non-sequential writing' (Nelson. 1987). Hypertext consists of '..... nodes or writing spaces connected by links created by the author/creator or by the reader/user (Fowler, 1994). In creating their own idiosyncratic pathways through the web the reader/user creates the 'docuverse' (Landow, 1992) of the Hypertext where '...the presentation of text is secondary to the referential structure, above all to the links. The reader moves quickly from the task of seeing and recognising the words to the task of building for himself (sic) the structure of arbitrary signs, defined both by the language and by explicit electronic links' (Bolter, 1991). But the hypertextual world of the World Wide Web is not just composed of text. While most of the information currently stored on the Web is textual there are increasing examples of experiments which integrate the verbal and the visual as users/creators merge arbitrary signs with visual representations and create new meanings for both the creator and the user.
The hypertextual environment of the World Wide Web is, in essence, an embodiment of constructivism. Constructivist theories assert that knowledge is 'built by the learner, not supplied by the teacher' (Loader, 1993) and that 'students construct their own understandings of experiences' (Gunstone, 1995). In contrast to constructivist theory current practice in syllabus development is to define the knowledge content of a discipline in a hierarchical arrangement. The inherent textual nature of curriculum documents creates a linear narrative. For curriculum developers a tension exists between the theory of students constructing their own understandings in their own idiosyncratic manner and the arrangement of a hierarchy of knowledge embodied in a curriculum. In the case of curriculum development, it is often a matter of organisational imperatives taking precedence over theory, no matter how good the theory is.
The hypertextual world of the World Wide Web contrasts sharply with current hierarchical curricula and the centrality of defined key learning areas. If, as McLuhan asserts, that techniques of representation define culture (McLuhan, 1964), then the techniques of representation offered in hypertextual media will redefine our culture (Bolter, 1991, Spender, 1995), and, as a result, will necessitate a redefinition of the curriculum which contrasts with its roots as a 'race course'.
Hypertext necessitates active readers and the reader/user creates their own individual narratives as the possibilities offered by Hypertext are explored. In a manifestation of postmodern theory, the distinction between author and reader is blurred (Lanham, 1993:6, Bolter, 1991:29) The reader/user of hypertexts becomes '... the co-author of the "text" that is read; sometimes the reader is the primary author' (Fowler, 1994). As Lanham observes, 'The boundary between the creator and the critic... simply vanishes' (Lanham, 1993:6).
The hypertextual environment of the World Wide Web, as anyone who has observed it for some time will attest, is inherently unstable and prone to change. In contrast, the very act of defining the knowledge base of a curriculum is an act designed to stabilise, to codify and to fix in print the nature of a discipline. The conceptualisation of knowledge as a body, embodied in the print/book culture and manifested in curriculum documents is challenged by hypertextuality, where knowledge/information flows and is 'unstable', where it is accessible and available on demand and where the relative value or worth of knowledge is ranked by the reader/user, not by some external arbiter. Government initiatives in Australia will produce an education system which will become, as Spender describes, '...part of the computer culture' (Spender, 1995:xv). She assert s 'In a computer based education system it will no longer be a matter of knowing information; it will be a matter of doing it. The essence will be making it as you want to' (Spender, 1995:xv). Current curricula emphasise 'knowing', and reflect a knowledge or content based approach to education that is challenged by the notion of children 'doing' information as embodied in hypertextual environments such as the World Wide Web.
The World Wide Web is arguably the most user friendly subset of the Internet and its phenomenal growth (Peters, 1994) can be attributed to the interface created by Hypertext itself. Hypertext encourages users to explore the possibilities for connection. By their nature, Hypertext documents, while they may have attributes of the traditional printed page, are inherently different. Hypertext is 'fundamentally unstable', (Bolter 1991:31), 'antihierarchical and democratic' (Landow, 1992:31-33, Bolter 1991:117, Lanham, 199 'networked text', (Landow 1992:23, Bolter, 1991:201, Lanham, 1993:102). The World Wide Web presents users/creators with and 'ecology of knowledge' which is unstable, antihierarchical, connected and democratic and which sharply contrasts with the way knowledge has been traditionally viewed and which has been the basis for curriculum development.
The imperative over the past decade to develop national curricula reflects an urge to standardise education; a mindset of 'regularity and repeatability' (Spender, 1995: 11). Considerable effort and time has been spent on firstly, defining the various disciplines or Key Learning Areas and, secondly, codifying knowledge and arranging it hierarchically. The metaphor of the lineal narrative of print separated into chapters is clearly influencing curriculum which are 'divided into strands... structured in .. bands'.. with 'achievement levels' (Curriculum Corporation, 1994). Publishers have rushed into print textbooks which embody the National Curriculum and the various state curricula. Their printed narrative is linear, hierarchical and separated into disciplines.
The 'Primus' project undertaken at the University of Southern California (Lyman, 1994) indicates the challenges which Hypertextuality imposes on our current print based mindset to curriculum. In association with publisher McGraw Hill, a number of textbooks used in a number of disciplines were placed in a hypertextual data base, allowing faculty members and students to select material and print textbooks on demand. The two major findings of this study were, firstly, it was not possible to predict the information people would use on the basis of their discipline and secondly, the 'basic unit of knowledge' was found to be the paragraph, not the article or the chapter. In Lyman's words '...this horrified the McGraw Hill writers, because they thought they were writing in a narrative form in which knowledge would be cumulative... (Lyman, 1994). The study found that the users treated 'narrative argument as if it were a database', designing their own information, creating their own narrative in response to their own idiosyncratic needs and desires. Current curricula are organised around '...an authoritative, cumulative version of knowledge; but that is not the way people are using it online (Lyman, 1994).' Hypertextuality challenges the whole notion of the linearity and separateness of knowledge and yet it is this paradigm which constructs curriculum.
The Primus study suggests that, while curriculum developers and textbook publishers/writers see the text based ecology of knowledge as authoritative and cumulative, the nature of Hypertext presents another ecology to users. Today students have a variety of information sources other than textbooks and other than schools. To them, the content provided by sources such as television, radio, music, movies and videos is far more dynamic and relevant to them. Even the relatively short history of students interacting with computers and telecommunications technologies suggests that they have a desire to 'hack' into real/authentic information held by governments and corporations; a desire to 'find out' for specific, definable purposes (Lemke, 1993). The constructed curriculum of an individual user becomes highly idiosyncratic, beyond the control of those who currently construct curricula. This short history suggests that children will construct their own curriculum, their own purpose, if the curriculum presented by the school does not synchronise with the curriculum offered by telecommunications technologies.
The idea that hypertextuality will challenge the traditional, linear and hierarchical curriculum itself is not reflected in any of the recent government initiatives. The issue for government appears to focus on access and equity and a belief that access to the volumes of information available through the World Wide Web will somehow produce better educational environments. While much theoretical work has been generated in the area of computer mediated telecommunications technologies (Bolter, 1991. Spender, 1995, Fowler, 1994, Brent, 1991, Lanham 1993, Friere, 1994) the relative 'newness' of phenomena such as the World Wide Web has meant that 'research into the educational applications of telecommunications is still in its infancy' (Scott, 1993:2).
It does not necessarily follow that The World Wide Web with its attendant hypertextual environment will bring about the demise of curriculum but it does present 'special problems for learning and instruction that call for special responses at the level of cognitive theory and related instructional interventions' (Spiro, et al, 1992). To achieve this goal it will be necessary to develop a curriculum which takes into account the ill-structured domain of the World Wide Web as being more reflective of knowledge and learning than the traditional of current curricula which have been forced to observe the mechanical impositions of the print medium and which have led to the assumption that such an arrangement is in itself epistemological.
The very basis of curriculum development is firstly, that discrete disciplines exist and can therefore be defined and, secondly, that within these discrete disciplines exists a hierarchy of key abstract concepts which can also be defined and which students must grasp. Lemke argues that this is '...not much more than a rationalisation for the academic status quo' and that 'it is already impossible to convincingly justify any particular selection of information as THE curriculum. Recent efforts to do so have either been reactionary attempts to return to the curricula of pride and prejudice, or else fanciful flights of abstraction seeking to teach non-existent, universally applicable intellectual processes (pseudo-universal problem solving skills, higher literacy skills, etc (Lemke, 1993). The postmodern and semiotic constructivist epistemologies of Lave (1988) and von Glasserfield (1991) also question this traditional curriculum ideology. Credibility in a virtual ecology of constructivist hypertextuality is not claimed by the writer, but given by the user. In this new 'ecology of knowledge' where information is no longer scarce, where connectedness rather than separateness prevails and credibility is determined by users, who defines or determines the curriculum?
At present it is understandable that schools and governments are concerned about the mechanical issues associated with connecting schools to the Internet. Unfortunately, the history of the implementation of educational technologies into primary classrooms suggests that simply connecting a school to the Internet will not bring about a revolution in the way children learn or the way teachers teach. Technological innovations have a history of being themselves 'schooled' or 'domesticated' (Bigum, 1995) where the status quo is preserved and existing structures and practices are supported by the technology rather than being challenged by them.
Another issue of concern is that providing students with access to such a large open range of information may result in 'free range students... grazing on the Net' (McKenzie, 1994) users creating their own idiosyncratic pathways through this new 'ecology of information'. World Wide Web browsers such as Netscape and Mosaic 'are based on Hypertext and rely on the user's ability to make informed decisions' (Ekland, 1995). If 'knowledge of subject matter correlates highly with an ability to navigate in a non-linear way through the information space' (Ohlsson, 1992) there are significant challenges with novice users such as primary school children. The conundrum this creates is that while primary students may be novices in relation to the information, they are often far more comfortable and often more expert at using the technology itself than their teachers. This situation is further complicated for primary teachers who may themselves not be 'experts' in the subject matter they present to children. In the ecology of knowledge created by the Internet, both primary teachers and primary students could be considered novices.
Only a few years ago it was possible to conduct a search of the Web using a relatively small number of search engines, with any particular search returning a relatively small number of results or hits. Now the number of search engines have increased significantly and the number of results or hits produced by a search using any of the search engines can be enormous. In such an information rich environment both teachers and children in primary classrooms may consider that the volume of information is in itself an impediment if the means available to both to interrogate the information are limited by the teachers lack of expertise in the subject area and the students lack of experience. The analogy can be drawn to confronting several hundred dishes on a menu in a Chinese restaurant. Given such overwhelming opportunities for choice, many people will return to their old favourites, to what they know to avoid making a decision about something new. The options presented by the Web may be simply to great to consider and the curriculum, in spite of access to what may amount to the sum total of human knowledge, may be constrained to the limits of knowledge of an individual teacher or, abandoned completely.
The challenge is to integrate constructivist theory, the Internet and to create 'a curricula that match (but also challenge) children's understanding, foster further growth and development of the mind' (Strommen, et.al. 1992). Curricula are socially constructed and represent cultural views of knowledge. The focus of constructivism is the child as a 'self governed creator of knowledge' (Strommen, et.al. 1992).
While government initiatives such as those in NSW are providing schools with computers and access to the Internet very few schools at this point in time are able to provide their students with regular access to the World Wide Web. To many classroom teachers, the Internet is just another educational curiosity that can be subsumed into the existing paradigm. While curriculum documents continue to represent knowledge in linear and hierarchical arrangements, the pedagogical approaches used by classroom teachers will reflect this paradigm. How it will be used in schools is problematic.
Increasingly, the Internet, and in particular the Hypertext world of the World Wide Web will become a part of our culture, in much the same manner as the codex book permeated our culture over the past centuries. How it will impact on our culture cannot be predicted, in the same manner that the effects on our culture induced by the printing press could not have been anticipated. In spite of the changes in technologies over the past 20 years the 'process of teaching has not changed substantially, even in the past 100 years' (David, 1990, Kolderie, 1990). It may be that students start to bypass the school as the medium for their education. In this context there exists the very real possibility that the World Wide Web may not be used at all by some teachers or that it will be used in ways which do not reflect how children learn and which do not take into account the reality of the way knowledge is itself represented in the hypertextual environment of the World Wide Web.
The World Wide Web acknowledges users as constructors of their own narratives in an 'ecology of knowledge' unimaginable even 10 years ago. It is now incumbent Curriculum developers at a state and national level to develop curriculum using the metaphor provided by the World Wide Web itself, just as the printed book has provided the metaphor for curriculum development for the past century. Once a curriculum has been developed which acknowledges the Web as the curriculum rather than as something which can be subsumed within it, it will be necessary to support classroom teachers by developing a pedagogy to make effective use of the Internet and which accepts that the school or classroom will not necessarily be the primary information source for children.
While theoretical models, based on constructivist approaches are being developed they have largely been tested in academic institutions with undergraduates and conducted within specific disciplines (Ekland, 1995). Further research is needed in the area of primary education with 'novice users' (both teachers and students) to develop an instructional framework that can lead to the development of an appropriate curriculum and pedagogy.
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